Today , the majority of Australians take pridefulness in being part of a multicultural , multiethnic society . But much like the United States , Australia has a viciously racist story .
Immigration to Australia was restricted almost exclusively to whites from the country ’s initiation in 1901 until the mid-1970s . The legislation was unofficially but universally known as The White Australia Policy , and it was established to give preferential discussion to the British .
But the whitewashing of Australia did n’t start with the country ’s creation in 1901 as a British Commonwealth . In 1901 , Australia ’s universe of 3.8 million people was already 97 percent white . It would continue over 95 percent white until the 1970s . The res publica ’s expressed goal , not unlike that of some American commonwealth and territories in the previous 19th C , was to create awhite utopia .
Who Are These “White People”?
Australia ’s antiblack in-migration policies lift one of the most confusing questions of the twentieth one C for both America and Australia : What precisely is “ the lily-white race ” ? After all , if you ’re going to have an in-migration insurance that says whites - only , you first have to define what “ white ” means .
The island of Australia has an indigenous population that trace its account on the continent back some 50,000 years and is recognized as one of the oldest living cultures on the major planet . British Captain James Cook arrived on Australia ’s shore in 1770 . His age group described the land as uninhabited , despite the fact that an estimated 700,000 people were already living there .
The absence seizure of people on the continent is a Trygve Halvden Lie that has wander itself through the arras of Australian history , popping up as recently as last year when former Prime Minister Tony Abbott described Australia as “ changeable ” before British ships arrived .
The goals of blanched Australia lead off in earnest in 1788 as the First Fleet of Europeans began white settlement of the vast continent . Australia Day , a bit like Independence Day in the US , is tied to 1788 and a celebration of the First Fleet ’s comer . Soon after , the British would charge more captive to Australia , as the United States was no longer a viable dumping ground for British convicts in theaftermath of the American Revolution .
The country would slow evolve by the nineteenth century into a collection of six distinct colonies on the enormous continent of Australia : New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , and the island of Tasmania . The Northern Territory would remain , as it does today , a territory .
Map of Australia in 1864 viaDavid Rumsey
Even the most “ progressive ” of Australia ’s new white settlers would see its primeval population as an accidental oddment of pre - history – in the 19th century , some white viewed Aboriginals as almost subhuman creatures who should give room to the land ’s proper owners , the English . In fact , it was n’t until 1967 that Aboriginal Australians were even counted as human in the prescribed census .
Writingin 1848 , British compound protagonist J.C. Byrne account indigenous Australians as a rude chemical group of people who had n’t been the right way fat on its soil . And that White had every God - give right to conquer it :
Now , prepared by the hand of the lowest subspecies in the scale of humanity that is have sex to exist , the soil of these all-inclusive regions is ready to get the pure impressions of genteel man . No tombs , nor tabernacle , nor palaces , nor shrines , exist to tell of the past ; the chronicle of the land remains to be spell in the future , when nations of the Anglo - Saxon wash hoi polloi the woods and valleys of Australia , and with their enterprise and energy cover the estate with grounds of their immenseness .
To the colonizers , Australia was a land ready to be easily suppress . And in mirroring the frontier qualities of the United States , that mean both the obliteration of its native multitude , and the captivity of multitude fetch from foreign lands . As Raymond Aitchison indicate convincingly in his 1972 bookAmericans in Australia : “ It could almost be say that if Britain is the mother of modern Australia then the United States is the inadvertent father . ”
“ Kanakas ” on a sugar plantation in Cairns , Queensland circa 1890 viaBritannica
The Dueling Gold Rushes
In the second half of the 19th century there were two Gold Rushes on both side of the Pacific Ocean . One was quite literally for gold , as multitude from all over the world came to both Australia and California in search of it . But the other , less well known Gold Rush was in the trafficking of human beings on the numerous island between the US and Australia .
If you ask most blank Australians today whether their country ever had thrall , they ’d belike answer with an emphatic “ no . ” The S - word was prohibited among respected historians in Australia until the last decade or so . More often than not , historiographer preferred the term “ indentured servitude . ” But when you read the chronicle of colonial Australian ships bouncing from island to island and bringing back tens of thousands of people to toil on boodle and cotton wool plantations , it sounds a deal like slavery . Groups of people were take from their home against their will to act upon for little or no salary . And while some were released after three - year contracts , many went volunteer and could moil for decades . All this was a direct result of the ending of mass slavery in the United States after the Civil War in 1865 .
“ Many state , include the United States , find it hard to allot with the tawdry , unpleasant aspect of their chronicle , ” University of Houston historian Dr. Gerald Horne told me by telephone . “ And Australians are not alone in that regard . ”
The chief driver of slavery on the South Pacific Islands and in Australia from the 1860s onward was pretty straightforward . Britain wanted cheaper cotton plant . The populace ’s cotton wool market had been thrown into turmoil because it could no longer depend on the blood and elbow grease of free labor provided by the slaves of the American South . The British Empire ’s material manufacture was suffer , and even though the UK had abolished slavery in 1833 , they were not above face the other mode when it hail to bring flash cotton plant .
This explosion in cotton wool Leontyne Price lead entrepreneurial man of extremely confutable ethics to go island hop in the South Pacific . Starting in the 1860s , ship with names like theMarion Rennie , the Forest King , and the Krishna picked up native peoples by any means necessary and bring them to places like Fiji and Queensland , Australia to exploit on cotton and sugar plantation .
The most conservative estimate for how many people were taken to lick in Australia during that meter are around 60,000 . But given the nature of record keeping in a region that was ostensibly free of slaves , it ’s sturdy to say for sure . Some historian estimate that as many as120,000 peopleof the South Pacific were brought to Australia under “ indenture servitude ” between the 1860s and early 1900s .
Blackbirding by Any Other Name
The preferred method of “ enlisting ” for these “ indentured serving ” task was called blackbirding . This involved ashen ships arriving on an island during the daytime to talk over craft , leave peacefully , then returning at night dress in all black to take mass by force .
Sometimes Australian ships would shoot down on an island and entice trusting and funny people en masse into the ship ’s payload custody , only to close up and interlock it behind them . Other time , the blackbirders would model as missionary , flip their collars around and bringing black books that look like bibles on shoring under the guise of bring the Bible of God to the island . When the locals piece to get word what the strange white adult male had to say , the blackbirders would reveal their guns and force people aboard their ship . Still other times , the leadership of a given island tribe would trade a few captive of rival tribes for hired gun , inebriant or other goods .
When masses were n’t taken by forcefulness per se , the coercion was compounded by the language barrier . Some of the people who were blackbirded were taught to go for up three fingers , a signal that imply nothing to them , but identified to Australian authorities who might seek to blockade the slave barter in the region that these people knew they were fall for three twelvemonth to run of their own spare will .
“ I think it ’s mediocre to say that many of the masses boarding these vessels to be transported to Fiji and Australia often times did n’t have right understanding of the English words , ” Dr. Horne says . “ The ability to pass along to them what was about to befall them was painfully lacking . ”
South Seas blackbirding ship named Fearless ( John Oxley Library )
One former Confederate in especial , William “ Bully ” Hayes , consecrate criminal offence in the Pacific islands far too numerous to name here without go on some barbaric tangent . But I ’d advance you to break up up Gerald Horne ’s bookThe White Pacificif you ’re interested in learning about the extent of Bully ’s atrocities , admit slaying and the rape of children . His crimes were largely stand by British and Gallic authorities in the part , who would periodically arrest him for only abbreviated periods of fourth dimension .
Even before this period , Australians had been conspire with Americans to fight down for white domination . When the Confederate ship Shenandoah docked in Melbourne in 1865 , some 42 Australian men illicitly room to go fight for the American South . By the time they arrived in the United States , the warfare was over , but the ship gain its lieu in the history books for fire thelast shots of the American Civil War .
Formosan workers planting sugar cane near Cairns circa 1878 ( Queensland State Archives )
Prelude to the White Australia Policy
Though many citizenry of colour arrived in Australia to work against their will , many others came of their own volition . Predominantly from China , these new immigrants were often the target of discriminatory laws and anti - Asian bigotry , again mirroring what was happening in the United States ( and especially California ) at the time .
As author and economic expert N.B. Nairn explain quite bluntly in the September 1956 issue of The Australian Quarterly :
In oecumenical , between 1850 and 1900 the [ White Australia ] Policy developed in carnal knowledge to two chief factors : ( a ) the immediate problem of the inflow of Chinese , and ( b ) the gradual emergence of Japan as a world power …
The comparatively round-eyed foe to the Chinese was translated into legislative and administrative action , until by the belated 1880s , at the latest , the Taiwanese problem had been much solved .
The “ Chinese problem ” had been “ work out ” in the sense that the Chinese were actively being deported and deny entry into Australia .
In 1888 , socialist writer William Lane published a science fiction novel , first serialized in the Australian cartridge clip Boomerang , calledWhite or Yellow ? The Race - War of AD 1908 . The book enjoin the floor of a Chinese invasion of Australia , set in the futuristic world of 20 twelvemonth hence . Of of course , the brave white Australians narrowly vanquish the Asiatic hordes .
As David Walker describes in his report , “ Race Building and the Discipling of White Australia , ” Lane ’s racist novel told a story that would resonate and unfold as fearfulness grow about the so - called “ Yellow Peril ” and Australia ’s legion neighbour to the Frederick North :
‘ White or Yellow ’ was the first sustained accounting of an Asiatic invasion of Australia and it served as a precursor to a numeral of invasion tale in which Asia , in one form or another , threaten Australia ’s future as a homogenous white Carry Nation . There is , inevitably perhaps , a conspiratorial element in his authorship , a belief that there are plots underway to bring down White Australia .
Lane ’s other works included The Workingman ’s Paradise , first published in Australia in 1892 . But by 1893 , Lane had plain yield up on Australia as a workman ’s heaven , and left for Paraguay to establish a ( white ) utopian settlement with about 200 other like - minded folk . They call it New Australia .
Unsurprisingly , Lane ’s settlement , which was comprised mostly of men , fell aside under his rather rigorous ( some would debate fascistic ) leadership . Lane blackball alcohol , as well as any cavorting with the local adult female , primarily on racist grounds . Many of the residents of New Australia returned to Old Australia , but some 2,000 people in that region of Paraguay currently count themselves as direct posterity of Lane’sfailed utopian experiment .
Lane ’s defection of Australia did n’t mean that there were n’t plenty of other white voices to occupy the void at the last of the 19th century . One of the most virulently antiblack issue in Australia was known as The Bulletin . Its masthead , “ Australia for the White Man ” say it all .
The magazine ran cartoons depict terror to the concept of a White Australia , play off of fears surrounding the importation of sleazy labor from blackbirders of the South Seas and the perceived threat of invasion by Asiatic immigrants .
depart : animated cartoon from The Bulletin circa 1886 ; Right : ‘ The Yellow Trash Question ’ in The Bulletin , 1895 . ( Migration Heritage Centre )
Some of the loudest voices , like Lane , justified their racist arguments by claim they merely wanted protection for the white working man . These contestation would become vulgar with increase globalization in the 20th century , and regrettably still resonate with many people here in the 21st C . One only needs to look at the racist populism of current Presidential hopeful Donald Trump , who sound off that Mexicans are take American jobs .
Ousting the Blackbirders
On paper , the various local governments of Australia bit by bit made the importation of “ indenture handmaid ” illegal . But even the most vicious blackbirders seldom date justice meted out passably .
In the 1965 article “ Slavery and Racism in South Pacific Annexations , ” authors Merze Tate and Fidele Foy describe the injustices that occurred even after police were passed :
Queensland ’s Polynesian Labourers Act was nothing more than a hollow mockery . [ … ] Queensland slavers either ignored the jurisprudence only or bilk it by sail under foreign flags ; moreover offenders who were captured by English commanders were often acquitted by well-disposed colonial royal court and the turn back officer was compelled to pay off heavy reparations for the hold and so-called harm inflicted upon slave vessels .
Some of the supposed remedies for blackbirding were closely as horrifying as the offence itself . Ordered by the Queensland regime to return abducted and enslaved islanders , many of the slavers simply dump their charges at the nearest island , regardless of their island of ancestry . Sometimes , this was just impassiveness and laziness on the part of the blackbirders . Other times , they were afraid to return to the islands they ’d violate , worried that they would be attacked by enraged friend and families of the people they had nobble .
The Aborigines of Australia were get along little better than immigrants of colour and slaves during the latter one-half of the 19th hundred . Sometimes hunt like creature , and often taken prisoner for minor offenses ( both veridical and contrived ) , they were care for like chattel .
primaeval prisoner in Western Australia circa 1896 ( Western Australia Museum )
The Formal Assembly of a White Utopia
Australia became its own country – a commonwealth of the British Empire much like Canada and New Zealand – in 1901 . And with that came the formalization of anti-Semite in-migration policies that would shape the res publica ’s population for the next 70 old age .
The first Act passed by Australia ’s first parliament was the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901 . When the act was ab initio aim it was very explicit in its exclusion of all people of color from Australia . But some saw this outright racism as detrimental to Australia ’s patronage relations with its neighbors to the north – specially the Empire of Japan . Japan would repeatedly complain about the great indignity of being called an deficient race by the Australian government , and the Act did indeed harm sexual congress between the two body politic for generations to descend .
As a compromise on the Immigration Restriction Act , the new Australian governing instituted a 50 - Holy Writ dictation tryout to limit who would be let into Australia . The test was establish for the most part on a method already being employed in South Africa . It could be cave in in any European language , which intend that if a Chinese immigrant pass the test in English , decision maker could give it again in French , whereupon the potential immigrant would be denied ingress to Australia .
One of the more interesting things about the implementation of the White Australia Policy in the first decade of the twentieth one C is that it actually angered the Brits . shut subjects of the Crown such as Indians from emigrating to Australia on the foundation of race was seen as an affront to the British Empire . But the command test allowed Britain to abide Australia ’s racist immigration policy . After all , if Australia want only literate mass to immigrate , that was up to them . It was n’t as if they were keep out people based alone on raceway .
tabloid music for “ March of the Great White Policy ” circa 1910 via theNational Library of Australia
Australia was n’t just preventing the great unwashed of color from come to their country . They were also mass deportations of people of coloring who had arrived in the nineteenth century .
One of the great ironies / tragedies of the White Australia Policy was that it twice terminate so many people who had been brought to Australia against their will . By some estimates , just about 9,000 Pacific Islanders were deported from Australia by 1908 – oftentimes break open up menage that had been build up in Australia . Men who had not wished to add up to Australia in the first place ( or whose parent had come at the end of the barrel of a blackbirder ’s gun ) were now being shipped back to islands where they no longer had societal or genetic roots .
As they shipped masses of color away from Australia ’s shores , the Carry Amelia Moore Nation worked with England to send more snowy people in . In the Wake Island of World War I , there was a concerted drive to contribute as many ( white ) British people to Australia as possible . The British government was even footing the bill , hoping to implant strong germ in this comparatively newfangled outpost of the Empire .
Many Brits , accustomed to urban life in place like London , were ship to Australia and given their own plot of land of land . But what to do with it ? They had no experience agriculture , and what few that did were mostly unfamiliar with this foreign land and the crop that flourished there . Many British people stayed anyway , having number over on the government ’s dime bag . But the 1920s program , which cost over half a million pounds ( adjusted for inflation ) , was mostly meet as a failure .
The White Australia board game via ABC Australia
The Great Depression brought a speedy decline in British migration to Australia . But still , in 1933 about 97 pct of Australia ’s population were of British descent . By the end of World War II in 1945 , the nation ’s population had jump to 7.3 million . 99 percent of that population was white . This , of course , was no stroke . The White Australia Policy was working as stand for .
The “Italian Peril” and the Definition of White
Are Italians “ white ” ? Are Greeks “ blank ? In both Australia and the United States at the turn of the 20th C , the answer was no .
As Matthew Frye Jacobson explain in his 1998 bookWhiteness of a dissimilar Color , the definition of “ livid ” in American culture at the last of the 19th hundred led to geographic contradictions even within the country itself :
It is one of the compelling circumstances of American ethnical history that an Irish immigrant in 1877 could be a despise Celt in Boston — a threat to the democracy — and yet a self-coloured member of The Order of Caucasians for the Extermination of the Chinaman in San Francisco , chivalrously defending U.S. shores from an invasion of “ Mongolians . ”
The Australian regime struggled with the same question as the White Australian Policy institutionalized the societal construct of race and the proportional “ whiteness ” of any give nationality .
Catherine Dewhirst of the University of Southern Queensland has studied the chronicle of Italian in-migration to Australia . In her 2008 newspaper “ Collaborating on Whiteness : represent Italians in early White Australia , ” she explains that Italians struggle for comprehension under the new White Australia Policy at the turn of the twentieth century . But they also tried to maintain some likeness of Italian identity element within their Modern dwelling :
Convinced that Australians would gain from Italian farming expertise and other skills , Italian community leaders nevertheless did not expect Italians to give their country of origin . But , the method of combining pureness with Italianness merely would not benefit impulse on a national grade until well after 1945 .
The bargaining over definition of whiteness would continue with Australia ’s entry into the 2d World War . But there was one thing that the Australian government know for sure : African - Americans were not white .
Bishop John Andrew Gregg , service as part of President Roosevelt ’s envoy , render with black soldiers in Australia in 1943 ( National Archive )
World War II and the Arrival of Black American Sailors
Black American soldiers stationed in Australia during the war were treated as inferior to white . Indeed , it was n’t sure that African - Americans would be allow to set foot in the country at all . The first American ship carrying black Panama hat were refuse entry to Australia in December of 1941 and January of 1942 .
It took a bit of negotiation before dark soldiers were allowed into Australia and by January 25 , 1942 Australia and the United States had reached an concord about its black sailor in the Pacific . In the closing , African - Americans were permit to be place in Australia under nearly very condition of the Jim Crow South .
As Kay Saunders and Helen Taylor explain in their newspaper “ The Reception of Black American Servicemen in Australia During World War II , ” the comer of black Americans fighting in the Pacific challenged Australia ’s notion of racial purity . Echoing anti-Semite stereotypes from America , Australians worried openly about the sexual menace that could be let loose when they call for black Americans onto their dirt .
From Saunders and Taylor :
At one level , Australian and American piece engaged in tenacious and acrid dispute over access to Australian cleaning lady who were thus cast as peaceful instruments of either virtue or joy in the virile dominions of mogul . However , at another grade , while [ white ] Australian world were in overseas theatre of state of war , the additional dimension of thousands of unseasoned , smartly dressed , affluent , resident Black troops exasperate the general uneasiness . Both the official and public dismay ensured that an try would be made to prevent dark man associating with local women .
Attempts to keep black piece away from white neighborhoods ( and in especial away from white Australian women ) meant that the US military , in collusion with the will of the Australian government , kept ignominious soldier in geographically isolate area .
This think of the disheartenment of white Australia soldier even come in contact with bleak Americans . As one Australian theater director of security report at a group discussion in May of 1942 :
The only agency to look at with them [ black gilbert ] , according to the Americans , is to keep them in their right place . I think you should give consideration to make it an offence for any Australian member of the Forces to pimp for or supply to any coloured appendage of the American forcefulness any pot liquor . The Americans do n’t need it and they have put the hotels out of bounds to the Negroes .
By August of 1942 there were over 7,000 black Americans stationed in Australia . But they were largely restrain to rural areas whenever possible . When black soldier were permitted in the major cities of Australia there were designated “ white ” and “ colored ” facilities like dancing halls , mirroring the unintegrated American South .
As Saunders and Taylor explain , black Americans were only allow to fraternize with Aboriginal Australians , sometimes forming close bonds over common struggles for racial equivalence .
James Currie , an Aborigine , form a club at the Protestant Alliance Friendly Society hall in Red Hill , a working - class interior - city Brisbane suburb . It was patronized by Black Americans , Aborigines , and a small number of White women . Australian human race were blackball by order of the U.S. military authority . semiweekly dances were stringently supervised inside and defend outside by the shoring patrol and the U.S. military police as well as by the local civilian police .
Black Americans fighting for the Allies were traveling midway around the existence only to be recount that they would remain second socio-economic class citizens wherever they go .
Populate or Perish
After World War II , Australia make that it needed a big population if it was to survive and thrive as a nation in the 2nd one-half of the 20th C . But politician did n’t abandon the approximation of preserving a white Australia . The government only sought to elaborate the definition of “ snowy ” to sometimes include easterly Europeans , allowing large numbers of Greek , Lebanese , and Italian immigrants to insert the country lawfully for the first fourth dimension .
politician in Australia also redoubled their efforts to add as many British people to the body politic down under as potential . Calling back to programs in the 1920s , the Australian immigration agency launched a safari in 1957 called “ wreak Out a Briton . ”
Screenshot from a 1957 ‘ Bring Out a Briton ’ film featuring Chips Rafferty ( NFSA Australia )
In the stop between 1964 - 65 , roughly 74,000 immigrants to Australia were from the UK and Ireland . The second largest group arrive from Greece ( 10,000 people ) . The next largest radical were coming from Malta and Yugoslavia at roughly 5,000 people each . As late as the sixties , there were still concert efforts to keep Australia as “ ashen ” as possible , even if it mean amplify the definition of whiteness .
Though the liberalization of these immigration policies was signify to convey in young kind of bloodless mass , it in reality wound up diversifying Australia ’s population at last . Sociologist Gavin W. Jonesexplainsthat the new insurance opened the doorway for the generations of Asian immigrants who would come in the latter one-half of the 20th century :
Ironically , an important agent fret support for White Australia was the success of post - war passel immigration programs designed to sustain White Australia by supplementing British migration . Many of these migrants were non - English talk Europeans , culturally very unlike from the British , yet they come along to fit into Australian bon ton with little detrition — and they certainly amend its cuisine — thus strengthen the case for widen the informant areas to let in Asian countries .
Vietnam and the Arrival of “Boat People”
The Vietnam War would finally deport a death blow to White Australia Policy . At least on paper . In December 1972 , Australia elected a new government under Prime Minister Gough Whitlam , the first Labour government in three decades of conservative formula . Whitlam ’s Labour Party pledge to get the troops out of Vietnam , and did so in 1973 .
The Whitlam government also liberalized immigration policy , fill in more Vietnamese refugee than any other nation on Earth as a proportion of its universe . Of course , the arrival of Vietnamese refugees would spark fear in certain corner of Australia . But as anti-Semite anxiety about the “ Asiatic incursion ” became less socially satisfactory , prejudice focused on a unexampled character of immigrant not base on race , but rather class and position .
People go far with plentitude of money and come by plane were deemed fit to assimilate into Australian civilisation . Those get in by boat were not only a threat to civilized lodge , but seen as unworthy of becoming Australian . This sort of prejudice continues today , as bloviate US politicians forebode to “ build a fence ” to keep working - class Mexicans from entering the US on foot .
There ’s a curious full term used unflinchingly by most of the mainstream press in Australia today : sauceboat masses . The terminus look up to asylum seekers and other migrants who come by gravy holder on the shores of Australia rather than by carpenter’s plane . The term originates in 1976 , when the very first “ sauceboat people ” arrived in Darwin from Vietnam . After a two - calendar month journey by gravy holder , five Vietnamese refugee fleeing the communistic regime get hold of Australia .
“ We kept the arrival of the boat — that first boat into Darwin — as low key as we could , ” former Immigration official Wayne Gibbons told SBS in a2010 documentary . “ We did n’t want to spook Australians . ”
The gravy boat that channel the first Vietnamese refugees by ocean to Australia in 1976 ( SBS )
“ sauceboat arrival now into Australian territorial dominion risked creating an atmosphere that things were out of control , ” Gibbon bestow . “ When the Australian public think thing are out of control they generally turn against in-migration . ”
This inflow of refugee in the late seventies — still acontroversial topic todayas people seek institution in Australia from countries like Iraq , Iran , Afghanistan and Syria coming through Indonesia — threatened some Australians who had turn up believing that Australia should remain predominantly white . Other Australians , of course , welcomed the dismantling of the White Australia Policy once and for all . Between 1976 and 1981 the authorities estimates that2,059 boatswould arrive on Australian shores , filled with refugee look for safe harbor .
Screenshot from an Australian regime video differentiate citizenry arriving by boat that they will not be allowed into the country ( 2014 )
Fierce debates would rage in the eighties over Asian in-migration into Australia , standardized to US debates over Mexican immigration . But by the early 1990s , roughly50 percentof immigrants to Australia were come from Asia . This was a monolithic leap from 1973 when just 12 percentage of immigrants were get in from Asiatic countries .
“ In many ways , I think Australia has confront its history in a more effective way than the United States has , ” Dr. Horne secernate me . “ There is a discourse amongst Australian historians about the nature of a colonist dependency . In the United States , the full term ‘ settler land ’ does n’t survive . ”
Modern Australia is still majority “ lily-white , ” and while the debates over immigration continue into the 21st century , most Australians are gallant to live in a multicultural guild . We are truly becoming one reality in so many ways — the actualization of Buckminster Fuller ’s Spaceship Earth . And we are dissever by edge sometimes real ( like Australia ’s world as an island ) and imagine .
My last trip to Sydney include a halt at a Mexican restaurant run by a Mexican family that would match anything I can get here in Los Angeles . Now if only I could incur a halfway seemly blimp bowl in West LA .
Top illustration by Jim Cooke
Sources : The White Pacific : U.S. Imperialism and Black Slavery in the South Seas After the Civil Warby Gerald Horne;Whiteness of a dissimilar coloring material : European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Raceby Matthew Frye Jacobson;The Implementation of the White Australia Policy in the Queensland Sugar Industry 1901 - 12by Alan Birch;The Reception of Black American Servicemen in Australia During World War IIby Kay Saunders and Helen Taylor;Slavery and racial discrimination in South Pacific Annexationsby Merze Tate and Fidele Foy;The White Australia Policy : Some Administrative Problems , 1901 - 1920by A. T. Yarwood;A Survey of the account of the White Australia Policy in the nineteenth Century by N.B. Nairn;Collaborating on Whiteness : stage Italians in Early White Australiaby Catherine Dewhirst;Indentured Labor in Australiaby Brian Fitzpatrick;Blackbirding : A brief account of the South Sea Islands Labour Traffic and the vas engaged in itby E.V. Stevens;People Movements between Australia and Asian - Pacific Nations : Trends , Issues and Prospectsby Kee Pookang
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